Quantifying Ethanol in Ethanol-Based Hand Sanitizers by Headspace Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detector (HS-GC/FID).

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic sharply increased the demand for ethanol-based gel hand sanitizers, leading to a shortage of these products. Consequently, regulatory health agencies worldwide have altered their regulatory guidelines on ethanol quality to meet this high demand, raising concerns about product quality. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to quantify ethanol content and to qualitatively assess common impurities in ethanol-based gel hand sanitizers by headspace (HS) gas chromatography (GC) with flame ionization detector (FID). METHODS: To quantify the ethanol content, 0.10 g of the sample was weighed in a 20 mL HS vial and 5 mL of deionized water was added. Regarding the qualitative approach, 0.25 g of the sample was weighed and 4 mL of deionized water was added. The samples were incubated and then 400 µL of the HS was injected into the GC/FID. Forty-eight products purchased in Brazil were analyzed. RESULTS: Thirteen products presented at least one nonconformity regarding the ethanol quantity. Two samples presented an average ethanol concentration below the lower limit considered effective. Twelve samples presented acetaldehyde or ethyl acetate. CONCLUSION: The huge demand for ethanol-based gel hand sanitizers may have impacted their quality. Because concern with proper hand hygiene tends to remain an issue for a long period, more studies about quality control of hand sanitizers will be needed. HIGHLIGHTS: A simple and fast HS-GC/FID method to quantify ethanol in ethanol-based gel hand sanitizers was developed, validated, and applied to commercial samples in Brazil. The regulatory authorities must be more vigilant to ensure that the commercially available products meet the recommended specifications.

Socio-demographic and psychological features associated with smoking in pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate how social and psychological characteristics differ between pregnant women who smoke and do not smoke. To explore associations between social and psychological features with changes of smoking habits by the end of pregnancy. METHODS: A case-control study was set up. Smokers cases were never-smokers and ex-smokers controls. Pregnant women (n=328) from public prenatal services were interviewed. Socio-demographic data and psychological variables - personality traits, anxiety, depression, perceived stress, maternal fetal-attachment - were measured. Saliva samples were collected to measure cotinine and to check self-informed smoking status. In addition, 66 smokers were also assessed regarding smoking habits by late pregnancy. Smoking status was defined as a dependent variable. Exposure factors were analyzed through odds ratios. Logistic models and contingency tables were employed according to the nature of variables. "Qualitative change in smoking" was defined as a dependent variable for the last evaluation, and a logistic regression model was built. RESULTS: Lower schooling, higher age, use of alcohol and drugs, living without a partner, and passive smoking showed associations with smoking. Anxiety, depression and perceived stress also exhibited positive association with smoking. Among personality traits, only Neuroticism was associated with smoking. None of the variables were associated with qualitative change in smoking by the end of pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Smoking during pregnancy is associated with more unfavorable social conditions. Pregnant women who smoke exhibit more negative psychological states than nonsmokers, including a profile of accentuated Neuroticism. None of the investigated variables could predict changes in smoking during pregnancy.